In this study, AMG inhibited the accelerated death of retinal
capillary cells and development of retinopathy in diabetic rats. This
relationship between accelerated microvascular cell death and
retinopathy is further strengthened by the finding that these two
abnormalities also showed a concordant response to AMG in galactose-fed
animals. In galactose-fed animals, however, neither cell death nor
retinopathy was affected by AMG. Thus, in diabetes as well as in
galactosemia, the rate of microvascular cell death predicted whether
retinopathy eventually developed. We postulate that capillary cell
death plays an important role in the development of the retinopathy.
The mechanism by which AMG exerted its beneficial effects in diabetes
is not clear, because the effect on retinopathy was not associated with
changes in several well-characterized indices of advanced glycation. A
similar inhibition of retinopathy by AMG has been observed recently by
us in studies of dogs given the drug for 5 years.
15
As observed previously in the retinal vessels of both diabetic and
galactosemic rats,
2 the increased number of cells positive
in the TUNEL reaction showed chromatin fragmentation or formation of
apoptotic bodies, consistent with an apoptotic mode of death.
Furthering the concept that diabetes causes a proapoptotic environment
in the retina, Li et al.
16 found overexpression of a
member of the interleukin-1β–converting enzyme family in human
diabetic pericytes, and we recently observed increased levels of the
proapoptotic protein Bax in the retina and dying pericytes of human eye
donors with diabetes.
17 Although only the use of
interventions that selectively inhibit events unique to the apoptotic
process will ultimately establish the role of apoptosis in retinal
capillary obliteration, the growing body of evidence favors such a
role. Insofar as pericytes show minimal if any replicative capabilities
in the adult retina,
18 their accelerated apoptosis can
readily account for the pericyte dropout and formation of ghosts in
diabetic retinopathy. The proinflammatory
19 and
procoagulant
20 characteristics of apoptotic endothelial
cells may be a trigger for occlusive events eventually leading to
obliteration of capillaries.
Apoptosis and the morphologic manifestations of retinopathy were
present both in diabetes and galactosemia, but the divergent effects of
AMG on the two retinopathies suggest dissimilar events upstream of
apoptosis. In the retinopathy of diabetic rats, there is an
AMG-sensitive step that apparently is absent in galactosemic rats. AGEs
and their Amadori precursors tend to be formed in greater quantities in
diabetes than in galactosemia, as exemplified in this study by the
values of pentosidine, Hb-AGE, and GHb, and it therefore seemed
reasonable to suspect that the AMG-sensitive step in diabetic rats
might be the accumulation of AGEs. The accumulation of representative
AGEs in diabetic rats, however, was not prevented by AMG as
administered in our study.
The apparent discrepancy with previously reported inhibitory effects of
AMG on formation of Hb-AGE,
9 pentosidine,
21 collagen cross links,
22 and fluorescent
compounds
4 23 may have several explanations. First, the
blood levels of AMG achieved in our diabetic rats were on the lower
side of the range reported in rodents treated with the
drug,
4 24 and may not have been sufficient to inhibit AGE
formation. Rigorous comparison of the relationship between blood
concentration and tissue effects of AMG in different studies is made
difficult by the fact that blood levels of the drug have been measured
and/or reported very seldom, and that such levels show large variations
even in rats treated with similar doses of the drug by the same
investigators.
4 24 Second, some studies showing an effect
of AMG on AGE levels may have overestimated the degree of inhibition
because they were of short duration. Booth et al.
25 have
reported that in vitro AMG decreased the rate of AGE formation but not
the final amount of AGE formed, most likely because the drug inhibits
the late kinetic stages of glycation much less efficiently than the
early stage. It is also of note that in several long-term studies
showing beneficial effects of AMG on sequelae of diabetes, inhibition
of AGE accumulation by AMG was either not observed for all AGE species
or all tissues,
21 26 or was mimicked by compounds (such as
methylguanidine
27 ) not expected to inhibit advanced
glycation.
28 Consistent with our findings, Degenhardt et
al.
29 have reported recently that AMG inhibits albuminuria
in diabetic rats without inhibiting the formation of AGEs in skin
collagen. Therefore, beneficial effects of AMG on the complications of
diabetes do not necessarily correlate with its inhibition of parameters
of AGE accumulation.
Two caveats in the interpretation of our results are that AGEs in the
rats studied for the long-term were not measured in the retina, and
that only some AGE species were tested. Hammes et al.
4 6 attempted to assess effects of AMG on retinal AGEs by quantitating in
situ fluorescence of retinal arterioles at wavelengths
characteristic of AGEs. These wavelengths, however, are not specific
for AGEs, and likely include also a myriad of oxidation products.
Because we and others have found AMG to inhibit oxidative stress and
other biochemical processes,
28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 ascribing the
reduction of fluorescence in AMG-treated diabetic rats to inhibition of
AGEs may not be justified. It remains possible that AMG may achieve in
the retina concentrations higher than in other tissues and/or may be
more effective on AGEs other than those tested to date.
The finding that AMG was able to effectively prevent experimental
diabetic retinopathy without inhibiting accumulation of Hb-AGEs
(intracellular) and extracellular AGE has several implications. One is
that the beneficial effect of AMG on diabetic retinopathy may be
mediated by one or more of the many actions of the drug that are
unrelated to inhibition of AGEs.
28 30 33 35 36 37 AMG
treatment prevents biochemical manifestations of retinal oxidant stress
(as measured by accumulation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive
substances) and activation of protein kinase C,
37 but
these effects were similar in diabetic and galactose-fed rats, and
therefore may not be related to the unique AMG-sensitive step in the
development of diabetic retinopathy. A second intriguing implication
that has possible clinical relevance pertains to the systemic drug
levels found to inhibit the retinopathy; retinopathy was inhibited in
diabetic rats (present study and Reference 4) at plasma levels
substantially lower than those currently achieved in clinical studies.
Use of the drug at low doses may inhibit diabetic retinal
microangiopathy while lessening drug-induced side effects.
The authors thank Vincent Monnier for the method to measure
collagen breaking time.