In addition, we tested whether HNK would affect inflammatory response. Innate immune response acts as the first line against fungal infection,
19 however, excessive inflammatory response may contribute to the poor prognosis of FK because of the cornea damage caused by the higher production of proinflammatory factors, cytokines, and oxidative stress.
23,46,47 Neutrophils are professional phagocytes playing critical roles in fungal infections through various neutrophil pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), signaling transductions, and cytotoxicity.
48 Still, excessive neutrophil presence can lead to excess monocyte and macrophage recruitment and infiltration, in turn releasing numerous proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines to cause corneal damage.
49 Studies have shown HNK has anti-inflammatory activity,
50,51 and it is reported that HNK not only protects rat brain from focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury through inhibiting neutrophil infiltration and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production,
52 but also relieves acute pancreatitis via inhibiting expression of TLRs (2/4) and inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.
24,53 Thus we investigated whether HNK would influence neutrophil infiltration, as well as the expression of PRRs and proinflammatory mediators in
A. fumigatus keratitis. Our data suggested that HNK attenuated neutrophil vitality and infiltration to the infected area in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, HNK inhibited the expression of TLR-2 and inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and HMGB1, in
A. fumigatus HCECs. TLR-2 and TLR-4 activation results in neutrophil activation and the production of ROS, promoting the continuation of the inflammation cycle.
54,55 HNK represses the expression of TLR-2 so that it in turn inhibits neutrophil activation,
56 which is consistent with our result that showed HNK suppressed neutrophil infiltration. This result supports our hypothesis that HNK can inhibit inflammatory response in
A. fumigatus keratitis. However, the underlying mechanism of the inhibitory effects is still unclear. A few studies suggested HNK could bind to and enhance the activity of deacetylase SIRT3, a class III histone deacetylase predominantly located in mitochondria,
50 and SIRT3 could diminish inflammation and mitigate endotoxin-mediated acute lung injury,
57 which indicates HNK may exhibit its anti-inflammatory effects via mitochondrial function. Further study will be focusing on the exact anti-inflammatory mechanisms of HNK.