In control groups, no significant improvements were observed in either eye (trained eye or untrained eye) or binocularly at any spatial frequency (0.75–16.00 cpd) (
Supplementary Fig. S1). For ACs, the AE showed no significant changes across frequencies, F(1,6) = 0.242,
P = 0.639, partial η² = 0.039, although a significant main effect of spatial frequency was present, F(1.712, 10.270) = 46.024,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.885, without a significant interaction effect, F(5,30) = 1.017,
P = 0.422, partial η² = 0.145. Similarly, no significant improvements were found in the FE, F (1,6) = 0.152,
P = 0.710, partial η² = 0.025, or binocular contrast sensitivity, F(1,6) = 0.054,
P = 0.824, partial η² = 0.009, although both showed significant spatial frequency effects without significant interaction. MCs and NCs exhibited similar patterns, with no significant pre-training to post-training changes in either eye or binocularly, MCs, nonDE, F(1,6) = 0.328,
P = 0.589, partial η² = 0.052; DE, F(1,6) = 0.223,
P = 0.653, partial η² = 0.036; BE: F(1,6) = 0.184,
P = 0.682, partial η² = 0.030; NCs, nonDE, F(1,7) = 0.061,
P = 0.812, partial η² = 0.009; DE, F(1,7) = 0.116,
P = 0.741, partial η² = 0.016; BE, F(1,7) = 0.083,
P = 0.781, partial η² = 0.012. Although spatial frequency effects remained significant, MCs, nonDE, F(1.368, 8.211) = 48.224,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.889; DE, F(1.394, 8.362) = 53.007,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.898; BE, F(1.429, 8.574) = 58.413,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.907; NCs, nonDE, F(1.498, 10.484) = 56.089,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.889; DE, F(1.519, 10.635) = 50.266,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.877; BE, F(1.612, 11.285) = 61.347,
P < 0.001, partial η² = 0.898. No interaction effects reached significance, MCs, nonDE, F(5,30) = 1.134,
P = 0.362, partial η² = 0.159; DE, F(5,30) = 0.937,
P = 0.472, partial η² = 0.135; BE, F(5,30) = 1.214,
P = 0.326, partial η² = 0.168; NCs, nonDE, F(5,35) = 1.263,
P = 0.302, partial η² = 0.153; DE, F(5,35) = 1.462,
P = 0.225, partial η² = 0.173; BE, F(5,35) = 1.574,
P = 0.196, partial η² = 0.184.